Anthropologist's Digest

Tag: writing

  • Understanding Susto: The Impacts of Fright Illness

    Understanding Susto: The Impacts of Fright Illness

    Hello all, and welcome back to another post. I have not been active for a while due to a busy schedule at school, but I will try to get back to posting once or twice per month soon. Today, I am writing the first part of what I can hopefully make into a series about folk illnesses and their implications. In the context of healthcare AI models (if you haven’t read my old article, you can here), there is a potential for structural violence to develop based on folk illnesses. Aside from structural violence, folk illnesses that are treated in traditional folk manners can introduce further complications in the patient’s health. One such illness is the Latin American folk illness Susto. This will be a fairly short article, as it is the first of many that will discuss folk illnesses and medical descriptors across cultures.

    Susto

    Susto, often referred to as “fright illness”, is the name for a collection of symptoms including anorexia, fever, depression, and insomnia. Frightening events are typically attributed to causing the ailment, with emotional trauma, accidents, sudden scares, and witnessing tragic events being among the believed causes. In Latino cultures, it is believed that such traumatic events causes the soul to leave the body. The sickness is highly prevalent among people from South and Central America as well as some Latinos living in the United States. Treatment for Susto is performed by a Curandero (healer) through rituals like limpias (cleansings), prayers, and herbal medicines.

    Image Credit: Humanities Colaborative

    Many cases have appeared where individuals have claimed to be affected by susto. One of the most well-known studies describes a teenage boy named Junior who was admitted to a hospital for presumed Guillain-Barre syndrome. Though doctors were ready to treat him for such, the boy’s mother said that the symptoms were caused by a scare. Though doctors pressed a bit more about what could have caused the susto effects, the only information offered by the pair was that the incident had taken place with Junior’s father. No consideration of other illnesses by the family was described in the article.

    There is much to be considered with respect to the potential implications of folk illnesses like susto in programs and institutions; this will be further detailed in a later post. Many articles on the topic of susto discuss it in the context of cultural literacy; the failiure of many American doctors to understand the unfamiliar ailment serves as a call for increased cultural literacy in the medical sphere. The AMA article goes on to talk about communication styles in physician-patient communications as well as suggested education programs. Though I will write about the communication styles in a later article, I found the suggested literacy program to be interesting.

    The AMA describes a proposed model for cultural competency first created by Lee Pachter called “awareness assessment negotiation (AAN)”. Intended to be deployed when the health values of a patient or family do not fit the established western model, the AAN involves knowing about the normative cultural values of a group, assessing whether or not the patient or family conforms to those cultural values, and finding ways to meet the patient in the middle with regards to their beliefs. For example, in the aforementioned case, the physicians could have worked more to listen to Junior’s mom as well as acknowledge the warmer and more family-based communication style characteristic of Latino culture. While the system would be useful in solving cultural clashes in an ideal world, realistically speaking, it is impractical and near impossible to educate healthcare professionals about the intricacies of every culture’s communication styles and values. Still, the importance of cultural literacy that these cases convey is an importance that must be acted upon.

    Though this post was brief, I enjoyed writing about a new topic, and I hope to learn more about healthcare and medical anthropology as I continue to write. Stay tuned for the next article!

  • Barroom Biology: Aldh2 Polymorphism and Biological Anthropology

    Hello everyone, and welcome back to another blog post! For this post, I decided to explore a bit in the world of biological anthropology, one of the four main branches of anthropology. I typically try to keep my articles primarily centered around the branch of cultural (or social, for my British readers) anthropology, but this topic interested me enough to expand my horizons.

    Aldh2 Polymorphism

    Colloquially referred to as “Asian Flush”, alcohol flush reaction is a condition in which an individual can develop flushing, swelling, nausea, and a heightened heartbeat, among other symptoms. Such occurs in response to drinking in moderate to heavy quantities in individuals who have Aldh2 Polymorphism. Aldh2 (aldehyde dehydrogenase) is an enzyme encoded by the Aldh2 gene located on chromosome 12. It plays a major role in alcohol metabolism, that is, when the Aldh2 gene’s expression is producing both of its major isozymes. While most White, Black, Latino, and Middle Eastern people have no issues with their Aldh2, 35-50% of East Asian individuals are missing the mitochondrial isozyme. This makes those with the genetic mutation susceptible to alcohol flush reaction, as they are not able to use the isozyme to metabolize the toxic acetaldehyde in alcohol and convert it to the safer compound acetate. The excess of acetaldehyde is what causes the symptoms of flush reaction in the body. Those who have Aldh2 polymorphism carry the rs671 allele on chromosome 12 (also known as Aldh2*2), causing the mutation. (PubMed, Wikipedia)

    Image Credit: plos.org

    If the load of medical talk was too much for you, luckily, we will now move over to anthropology and examine how this mutation came to impact such a large amount of one population. Many theories exist claiming to answer the mystery of how it came to be; I will address each one and provide my own commentary as to how each could be correct. An article written by Yi-Chyan Chen et al. postulates that the initial genetic mutation spread easily due to the protection it provided from alcoholism as well as the dangers provided by alcohol in early times. This theory says that the mutated gene was favored because of the low rates of excessive alcohol consumption exhibited by its carriers (Chen et al., 2021). Chen’s idea is missing an explanation for why East Asian alcohol fostered natural selection at such a high rate, though, which is why I must continue to the next theory. A more recent study by Giovanni Denna et al. fills in some of the holes in Chen’s theory. Drawing on human evolution more so than Chen, it is here proposed that the Neolithic transition, a major shift in human life from nomadic hunter-gatherer living to a way of life with established settlements and the first agriculture. With rice first being cultivated during this period, the diets of these newly settled homo sapiens underwent a massive change involving the introduction of new pathogens. Denna’s theory suggests that selective pressure stemming from the new pathogens favored ALDH2*2 due to the protection it provided from microorganisms in water or fermented liquids used in alcoholic beverages, taking the focus off of alcohol itself and shifting it to the ingredients that make it up. The evolutionary pressure was reinforced by the popularization of rice-based alcohol, as it is proposed that rice may have been a carrier of pathogens (Peng et al., 2010). A final theory proposes that the selection may have been due to other non-alcohol related effects. Experts have not made a decisive conclusion as to which theory is correct, but the current consensus is that the right answer lies somewhere in the middle ground between all the theories.

    Effect on Culture

    Though the collection of studies on cultural implications of the ALDH2*2 gene is sparse to say the least, there have been a few interesting effects observed. To state the obvious, the gene deficiency leads to a lower rate of alcohol dependency in the affected population as well as a modified reaction to peer drinking. In cultures like Japan where the majority of people are carriers of the modified gene, drinking traditions have adapted to protect from the flush reaction; alcohol is generally consumed more slowly and in smaller amounts at a time. In some cultures like Japan, an attitude of accommodation towards those with the flush reaction is prevalent as a result of awareness of the flush reaction. This fits with the recurring anthropological theme of biology influencing behavior. Surprisingly, not many other facts on the matter have been revealed by research, as the amount of studies looking into ALDH2 deficiency leaves something to be desired.

    Sources Referenced

    Chen, Y.-C., Yang, L.-F., Lai, C.-L., & Yin, S.-J. (2021). Acetaldehyde Enhances Alcohol Sensitivity and Protects against Alcoholism: Evidence from Alcohol Metabolism in Subjects with Variant ALDH2*2 Gene Allele. Biomolecules, 11(8), 1183. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11081183

    Shin, M. J., Cho, Y., & Davey Smith, G. (2017). Alcohol Consumption, Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2 Gene Polymorphisms, and Cardiovascular Health in Korea. Yonsei medical journal, 58(4), 689–696. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2017.58.4.689

    Deiana, G., Sun, R., Huang, J., Napolioni, V., & Ciccocioppo, R. (2024). Contribution of infectious diseases to the selection of ADH1B and ALDH2 gene variants in Asian populations. Alcohol, clinical & experimental research, 48(5), 855–866. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.15288

    Wikipedia contributors. (2025, November 4). Alcohol flush reaction. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23:10, December 3, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcohol_flush_reaction&oldid=1320340582

    Wikipedia contributors. (2025, July 25). ALDH2. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23:12, December 3, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ALDH2&oldid=1302450652

    Peng, Y., Shi, H., Qi, Xb. et al. The ADH1B Arg47His polymorphism in East Asian populations and expansion of rice domestication in history. BMC Evol Biol 10, 15 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-10-15

    O’Shea, T., Thomas, N., Webb, B. T., Dick, D. M., Kendler, K. S., & Chartier, K. G. (2017). ALDH2*2 and peer drinking in East Asian college students. The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse, 43(6), 678–685. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2017.1314489

  • Cheese!: The Implications of a Simple Smile Across Cultures

    If you’ve read my blog before, there is a very real chance that you’ve seen me use the term “across cultures” to the point of sounding a bit trite. However, this time, I feel as if I have found a use of the term that is worth its incessant repetition.

    An occurrence that has always attracted my curiosity is the smile. Given thought, it is a truly fascinating thing that we in the United States are smiling to express their happiness at ages as young as six to twelve weeks. When pondering this, I began to wonder: ‘Is smiling innate? Do Japanese babies also smile to show happiness? Do German babies also smile to show happiness? Do Brazilian babies also smile to show happiness? Would the act of curving your lips upwards still signal your contentment to others if you were 5,000 miles away?’. These are all questions that I hope to find answers while I compose this week’s brief but hopefully rewarding post.

    Image Credit: Unsplash

    What Does a Smile Mean in Different Cultures?

    For the lack of a need to introduce the act of smiling (a phenomenon with which you are hopefully acquainted with at this point), I will dive right into the interpretations of a smile around the world. While smiling in America is common and widely accepted as an expression of happiness, people identifying with the Japanese culture typically do not feel the same way. In Japan, individuals have a different relationship with self-expression that tends to be less accepting of it than in America. In fact, their interpretation of expression of happiness lies more so in the look one gets in their eyes when experiencing cheerful or pleasant emotions. In a study published by Yuki, Maddux, and Masuda, researchers found that Japanese participants felt that Kaomoji [i.e. (^_^) & (T_T)] were more representative of their emotions than emojis frequently used by Americans [i.e. 🙂 & :-(]. Japan isn’t the only country that differently interprets smiling, however; smiling at someone in Russia may arouse their suspicion, while you may be surprised to find a very fearful person flashing all 32 shiny white teeth at you on your family trip to Thailand. In conclusion, a smile carries different meaning all around the world, whether it be in Japan, Russia, or America.

    The “Why”

    It is known that the smile is something interpreted differently around the globe, but what lies at the root of this phenomenon? There are many theorized reasons as to why we perceive smiles the way we do. I will use the difference between WEIRD (western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) cultures and East Asian cultures as the primary example here, as the difference between these cultures tends to be fairly drastic. Variations in cultural values—specifically between the individualistic West and the collectivistic East—may shape how happiness is expressed(Saskatchewan Polytechnic). This can play into different cultural models of self, and studies have shown that, when asked to complete the sentence “I am ____” 20 times, Japanese students tended to fill in the blank with social roles (i.e. cousin, daughter, student) as opposed to American students, who preferred to describe themselves with sociopsychological attributes (i.e. friendly, outgoing) (Cousins, 1989). These studies demonstrate a different relationship with emotion and its expression in individuals on other sides of the globe. Additionally, one theory postulates that countries composed of individuals with different cultural backgrounds tend to smile more due to the fact that their diverse cultural composition (individuals with different values and language coming together) requires nonverbal communication to be used as a cue more frequently. In contrast, relatively homogenous nations such as Japan may not require the same level of nonverbal cues, as the country’s language is uniform throughout.

    Knowing that smiling is not the norm for emotional expression in every part of the world, how do people from different cultures express their contentment and cheerfulness? Body language, tone of voice, social harmony behaviors, laughter, and “eye expressions” are all different ways that people around the world show their happiness.

  • Ethnography: The Emic and the Etic

    The Methodology of Ethnography

    The word ethnography is very general, being defined as the scientific description of the customs of individual people and cultures. It is primarily used, though, in reference to the methodology of ethnography. As a methodology, ethnography is a qualitative research method centered around studying cohorts or communities to understand social and cultural phenomena. Cultural immersion, external observation of cohorts, interviews, and collection of historical artifacts are the primary methods of research under ethnography. In the methodology of ethnography, two sub-methodologies exist: the emic and the etic. While some anthropologists favor either the emic or the etic, the two sub-methodologies compliment each other, and are often used together.

    Aleksander Stypczynski – Archaeologists at work in rural Uzbekistan

    The Emic

    The emic perspective involves gaining an insider perspective on a culture, examining their beliefs, values, and practices of that culture. This perspective is useful for identifying the motivations behind particular practices or traditions in a culture as understood by members of the culture. One of the primary benefits of the emic perspective is that it is useful for gaining an in-depth understanding of a certain culture. The primary fieldwork method of emic research is immersion into a culture, which involves living alongside members of a culture and participating in day-to-day activities and rituals with them. Unfortunately, the emic is not without drawbacks; only one culture can effectively be studied at once, leading to limited generalizability. Immersion in a culture over a long period of time can also cause a researcher to become biased, negatively impacting results. The emic is primarily employed by social scientists and anthropologists seeking to gain knowledge of a certain culture.

    The Etic

    In contrast, the etic is an outsider’s perspective, taking a more objective approach to examining cultures. This is typically done in a more scientific fashion, using standardized methods of data collection and evaluation to focus on more basic and general practices and traditions of a culture. In theory, since etic research is conducted from an outside point of view, the researcher can remain unbiased and objective. The etic also allows for researchers to compare two different cultures, and it is the primary method used to do so. Unfortunately, since etic research is so subjective and non-immersive, results fail to account for important contextual factors. Outside study may also lead researchers to interpret data incorrectly or make assumptions based on their cultural backgrounds. The etic is often employed in the same areas as the emic; it is used by anthropologists, social scientists, market researchers, and others seeking to understand cultural differences they are not familiar with.

    Conclusion

    In research, using the emic and the etic is not typically a “one or the other” type of situation. These sub-methodologies compliment each other and each serve their own purpose in research, often being used alongside each other to accomplish certain goals. In my own research paper that I will later write about, I am using etic as a primary methodology to compare different individuals’ opinions of medical AI based on where they are located. The emic is also being somewhat used, as I am a member of both cultures I am studying, and it offers me a way to understand exactly what factors are influencing participant’s responses. All in all, the emic and the etic are important for anthropologists who plan on doing research to understand, and they provide us with accurate ways to make conclusions about cultures when used correctly.

    Sources used

    McCutcheon, Russell T. “ Theoretical Background: Insides, Outsides, and The Scholar of Religion.” Emic / Etic, Kenyon College, www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln101/McCutcheon%20-%20emic-etic.htm#:~:text=The%20emic%20perspective%2C%20then%2C%20is,International%20Phonetic%20Alphabet%20for%20example. Accessed 24 July 2025.

    Mostowlansky, Till, and Andrea Rota. “Emic and Etic.” Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 11 Mar. 2025, http://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/emic-and-etic.